Pokhran tests and India's Nuclear Journey

2020 MAY 11

Mains   > Post Independence Consolidation   >   Post liberalisation era   >   International conventions

IN NEWS:

  • May 11 is celebrated as the National Technology Day, to mark the successful testing of India’s nuclear bombs at Pokhran in 1998.

HISTORY OF INDIA’S NUCLEAR PROGRAMME:

1947-1974:

  • In the years following independence, the internal debate over whether India should develop a nuclear explosive device was highly debated. On one hand, Gandhi rejected nuclear weapons and deterrence outright as immoral, while Nehru was skeptical.
  • Soon, a group of Indian scientists led by physicist Homi J Bhabha convinced Nehru to invest in the development of nuclear energy.
  • Subsequently, the Atomic Energy Act 1948 was passed, laying the foundation for India’s nuclear programmes. Serious developments began with the establishment of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay in 1954.
  • In its early stages, the nuclear program was primarily concerned with developing nuclear energy rather than weapons. In 1955, Canada agreed to provide India with a nuclear reactor. The ‘Canada India Reactor Utility Services (CIRUS)’ went critical in July 1960.
  • However, frequent conflicts with the neighbors, especially with nuclear-capable China, and the reluctance of the superpowers to come to India’s aid prompted India to develop an atomic bomb. India also opposed an ‘atomic collusion’ in the form of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
  • Thus, on May 18, 1974, under the Indira Gandhi government, India conducted its first nuclear bomb test, nicknamed Smiling Buddha, at Pokhran Test range in Rajasthan.  

1974-1998:

  • The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation. Also, Canada pulled its support for the Indian nuclear program and the United States imposed sanctions.
  • Despite these challenges, BARC managed to construct its biggest nuclear plant to date—the Dhruva reactor—at Trombay in 1977. The government also approved the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program in 1983.
  • During the 1990s, India faced renewed international pressure with the advent of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), which sought to put an end to all nuclear explosions.
  • Following the 1998 general elections, the Vajpayee-led BJP government came to power and gave the go ahead for another test. Meticulous plans were laid to avoid detection, especially by American spy satellites.
  • On May 11, 1998 India tested five nuclear devices under the assigned code name Operation Shakti at Pokhran, which involved one fusion and two fission bombs.
  • Following the Pokhran-II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. The government declared 11th May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the events.

1998-2009:

  • India faced universal condemnation and economic sanctions in the aftermath of the Pokhran II tests. Less than three weeks later, Pakistan conducted its first nuclear tests.
  • Soon after announcing its nuclear capabilities, India established the National Security Advisory Board, which devised a no-first-use policy for Indian nuclear weapons.
  • A turning point in U.S.-India relations occurred when plans for negotiating a U.S.-India nuclear cooperation agreement were unveiled in July 2005. This agreement, and the subsequent endorsement of India's case by the NSG, enabled India to engage in international nuclear trade.
  • In 2009, a safeguards agreement for select civilian nuclear facilities was concluded between India and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

2009-Present:

  • In 2010, India and the US signed a bilateral agreement allowing India to reprocess U.S.-obligated nuclear material.
  • India has also signed nuclear cooperation agreements with major countries such as Russia, France, United Kingdom, Australia, Japan and Namibia.
  • Today, the civilian Nuclear Command Authority chaired by the prime minister has sole authority to authorize a nuclear strike. Some estimates put India’s nuclear arsenal at 135 nuclear warheads.

WHY INDIA BECAME A NUCLEAR POWER:

  • Precarious neighborhood: Following the 1962 war, Indo-China relationships were virtually non-existent. Also, Post-1974, Pakistan had actively started a nuclear weapons programme with Chinese support. Under the threat of two nuclear adversaries, if India had to carry on with its own interests, it needed a strong deterrent.
  • Unreliable allies: During the Indo-China war, India unsuccessfully appealed to both the Soviet Union and the United States for assistance. Also, the US’s aggressive actions during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation war and reluctance to share technologies made the leaders realize that a large country like India cannot remain a pariah in the global order. 
  • Rebuke a nuclear apartheid: The post-World War II global nuclear governance was guided by the Non Proliferation Treaty. The NPT was extended indefinitely and unconditionally in 1995, perpetuating the existence of nuclear weapons in the hands of five countries, who went on to modernise their respective nuclear arsenals. India objected against this discrimination and wanted to break this collusion.
  • Pressure to sign CTBT: During the late 90s, there was severe pressure on India to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty-which would restrict India from conducting a nuclear test. India had to ensure that its nuclear option, developed and safeguarded over decades, was not limited by any self-imposed restraint and hence speeded up the tests.
  • Energy demands: An economically growing India had sharply rising energy demands. To meet the demand, development of nuclear energy was crucial. But the nuclear powers were reluctant to share technology with India or provide it with resources for developing civilian nuclear capabilities.
  • National Pride: Conducting a nuclear test was a necessity if India wanted to be taken seriously by the world. Before the tests, India’s capabilities were overlooked as a force to be reckoned with. Hence, India wanted to prove that it was fully capable of developing indigenous capabilities, be it in nuclear technology or space sciences.  

HOW IT BENEFITTED INDIA:

  • Geopolitical advantage: The tests ended India’s international isolation. They provided the basis for reconciliation with the global nuclear order, and redefined relationship with the US. Pokhran 2 culminated in the India-US nuclear deal, membership of  three of four global non-proliferation regimes  and a waiver from the NSG.
  • Access to international technology: The success at Pokhran showcased India’s capabilities in developing indigenous capabilities. Hence, the world showed a new vigour in collaborating with India. India becoming a partner in international mega-science projects like ITER, LIGO and Thirty Metre Telescope are examples of this change.
  • Developed a nuclear market: India was growing, and was being looked at as an attractive nuclear market. Countries such as Russia and France wanted to supply but there was the NSG hurdle. However, this hurdle was resolved when NSG gave India a "clean waiver" from its existing rules in 2008.
  • Benefitted civilian nuclear projects: India secured rights to receive uninterrupted nuclear fuel supplies as a trade-off against safeguards on its civilian nuclear facilities.
  • Strengthened domestic market: To overcome international sanctions, the government worked towards increasing domestic demand via ramping up the national highway programme and rural road projects, and facilitating reforms in the information technology and telecom sectors

CONCLUSION:

  • Over the years, India has portrayed itself as a responsible nuclear power, pointing to its positive record on nonproliferation and consistent support for complete nuclear disarmament. This has vindicated India’s stand of using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
  • After 22 years of Pokhran II, it is evident that the long-term gains from the test have far outweighed the short-term losses. The tests have redefined India’s position in the world order.
  • However, the growth of the Indian civilian nuclear energy sector continues to lag far behind projections. This needs to be overcome, if India is to meet its rising energy needs.
  • The next hurdle for India is to secure membership into the NSG. India has received explicit support from many NSG members including the United States, Russia, Switzerland and Japan. The only dissent is from China, which has been questioning non-signatories of NPT joining the NSG.

PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q. The demonstration in Pokhran in 1998 redefined India’s role in the 21st century world order. Discuss the factors which led to the Pokhran nuclear test. Has India benefitted from the test?